Allen, M. S., Mishra, M., Tashjian, S. M., & Laborde, S. (2025). Linking Big Five personality traits to components of diet: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 128(4), 905–929.
Extraversion refers to preferences for social interaction, lively activity, and engagement with the external world.
These facets represent sub-dimensions of the overall Extraversion trait.
Activity level refers to vigorous movement, staying busy, and sense of energy and forcefulness.
Assertiveness is the tendency to be dominant, forceful, socially ascendant; easily able to take charge, lead, and express one's feelings and needs.
Cheerfulness is the tendency to experience positive moods, feelings, and emotions (e.g., joy, delight, zest).
Excitement Seeking is the tendency for craving excitement, risk, and adventure; seeking out intense and stimulating environments.
Friendliness is reflective of being affectionate, friendly, cordial, and an intimately involved style of personal interaction.
Gregariousness reflects a preference for other people’s company and social stimulation.
Coping refers to the ability to overcome a stressful situation. Strategies that are commonly used to cope include: distraction, redefinition, direct action, catharsis, acceptance, social support, relaxation, and religion.
Definition
Coping refers to the ability to overcome a stressful situation. Strategies that are commonly used to cope include: distraction, redefinition, direct action, catharsis, acceptance, social support, relaxation, and religion.
Research Findings
David & Suls (1999) found a significant relationship between higher scores in extraversion and coping ability (p < .05; overall number of strategies used and use of the specific strategy of redefinition).
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Definition
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Research Findings
Research shows a consistent positive relationship between Extraversion and physical activity level. A meta-analysis of 35 independent samples (n = 50,721) found a summary correlation of r = 0.23 (Rhodes & Smith, 2006), identifying Extraversion as one of the three primary Big Five correlates of physical activity alongside Conscientiousness and Neuroticism. This effect was replicated and refined in a larger systematic review and meta-analysis of 64 studies (n = 88,400), which reported a significant mean r = 0.108 (95% CI: 0.091–0.124, p < 0.01) across 88 effects for Extraversion (Wilson & Dishman, 2015). Effects were moderately heterogeneous (I² = 65.2%), with stronger associations observed for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity compared to mild-to-moderate activity, suggesting the relationship is intensity-dependent and may be driven by the lower-order facets of Activity and Excitement Seeking. A 2025 intervention study (n = 132) corroborated these findings, showing that Extraversion significantly predicted higher baseline VO₂peak (β = 1.15, p = 0.006, R²adj = 0.13) and peak cycling power output (β = 8.06, p = 0.003), as well as greater self-reported weekly hours of physical activity (Ronca et al., 2025). The biological basis of this relationship is grounded in Eysenck's arousal theory: extraverts possess lower baseline cortical arousal and therefore seek stimulating environments, of which physical activity is a natural example.
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Definition
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between Extraversion and healthy eating (r = .07, 95% CI [.03, .11], k = 18, n = 15,541), with no evidence of publication bias and no significant moderation by age, sex, or world region (Allen et al., 2025). High extraversion was also associated with greater fruit and vegetable intake across combined, fruit-only, and vegetable-only analyses, as well as less emotional eating, consistent with extraverts' general tendency toward positive affect, which appears to buffer against stress-driven eating.
Sleep quality refers to the subjective experience and objective characteristics of sleep, including ease of onset, continuity (minimal awakenings), duration adequacy, and feeling rested upon waking. Commonly assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a global score ≥5 indicating poor sleep quality.
Definition
Sleep quality refers to the subjective experience and objective characteristics of sleep, including ease of onset, continuity (minimal awakenings), duration adequacy, and feeling rested upon waking. Commonly assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a global score ≥5 indicating poor sleep quality.
Research Findings
Research shows that higher extraversion is associated with better sleep quality, though effects are smaller and less consistent than those of neuroticism. Stephan et al. (2018; N=22,728, 4 longitudinal samples) found that higher extraversion was associated with better concurrent sleep quality (β=−0.06 [−.085, −0.029], p<.001) and predicted fewer sleep difficulties over a 4-year follow-up (β=−0.03 [−.054, −.013], p<.001). Guerreiro et al. (2024) synthesized eight studies and reported extraversion–sleep-quality correlations ranging from r=−0.059 to r=−0.25 (all p<.05). Notably, Allen et al. (2016; N=14,317, Australia) found r=−0.10 (p<.001), and Cellini et al. (2017; N=498, Italy) found r=−0.15 (p<.001) using the PSQI. The protective effect of extraversion on sleep is thought to operate through lower stress reactivity, greater positive affect, better respiratory function, and a more physically active lifestyle (Stephan et al., 2018). Notably, some studies report null associations with extraversion, suggesting that social lifestyle factors may sometimes counteract these benefits (Duggan et al., 2014; Huang et al., 2016).
Major depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest.
Definition
Major depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest.
Research Findings
Trull & Sher (1994) found a significant relationship between lower scores in Extraversion and Axis I major depression (p < .01)
Existential Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience.
Definition
Existential Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience.
Research Findings
In a study of 993 undergraduates, Macdonald (2000) demonstrate a correlation of .32 between Existential Well-Being and Extraversion (p < .001).
Gratitude is a general tendency to recognize and respond with grateful emotion when experiencing positive outcomes that are attributable to the benevolence of others.
Definition
Gratitude is a general tendency to recognize and respond with grateful emotion when experiencing positive outcomes that are attributable to the benevolence of others.
Research Findings
McCullough et al. (2002) found a significant positive correlation (.18, p < .05) between trait gratitude and extraversion.
Inspiration refers to the process of being mentally stimulated to do something and may involve the following characteristics: transcendence (larger than normal concerns), evocation (unwilled), and motivation (desire to make manifest) (Thrash & Elliott, 2004).
Definition
Inspiration refers to the process of being mentally stimulated to do something and may involve the following characteristics: transcendence (larger than normal concerns), evocation (unwilled), and motivation (desire to make manifest) (Thrash & Elliott, 2004).
Research Findings
Thrash & Elliot (2004) found a significant positive relationship (p < .001) between higher scores in Extraversion and Inspiration.
Cultural identification refers to an individuals sense of belonging to a certain cultural group (e.g., Canadian, American, or Chinese).
Definition
Cultural identification refers to an individuals sense of belonging to a certain cultural group (e.g., Canadian, American, or Chinese).
Research Findings
In a group of ~160 graduate students with Chinese ancestry, Ryder et al. (2000) found a significant positive relationship between scores in Extraversion and higher degree of identification with mainstream culture (p < .01).
Subjective Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals overall evaluation on the quality or their life from their own perspective.
Definition
Subjective Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals overall evaluation on the quality or their life from their own perspective.
Research Findings
See Diener & Lucas (2015) for an overview; the Steel, P., Schmidt, J., & Shultz, J. (2008) meta-analysis demonstrate correlations between .30 and .50 depending on the facet of subjective well-being (SWB) measured. In a metanalysis of more than 140 studies, DeNeve & Cooper (1998) found a positive correlation between SWB and Extraversion of .17.
Verbal fluency is the ability to produce correct examples from a specific category. It is a cognitive task that relies on verbal knowledge, inhibition of similar words from a different semantic category, and tracking / memory of words that have already been produced.
Definition
Verbal fluency is the ability to produce correct examples from a specific category. It is a cognitive task that relies on verbal knowledge, inhibition of similar words from a different semantic category, and tracking / memory of words that have already been produced.
Research Findings
In a meta-analysis of 10 studies with combined participation of over 80,000 participants, Sutin et al. (2019) found that extraversion is positively related to verbal fluency (p < .001)
Contemporary musical styles represent music with rhythmic, upbeat, and electronic attributes, found in genres such as rap, electronica, Latin, and Euro-pop.
Definition
Contemporary musical styles represent music with rhythmic, upbeat, and electronic attributes, found in genres such as rap, electronica, Latin, and Euro-pop.
Research Findings
Research indicates a positive association between Extraversion and preferences for Contemporary musical styles. A study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=.14 (p<.00001) between Extraversion and Contemporary music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. Supporting this, research leveraging Spotify streaming data from 5,808 users found Extraversion positively correlated with Reggaeton (r=.112, p<.001) and Sensual music (r=.084, p<.001), genres often categorized under Contemporary styles (Anderson et al., 2021).
Dream vividness refers to the sensory richness, perceptual clarity, and lifelike quality of dream experiences: the extent to which dream imagery, sounds, emotions, and sense of presence are experienced as detailed and realistic. Assessed via retrospective self-report scales or prospective dream diary ratings.
Definition
Dream vividness refers to the sensory richness, perceptual clarity, and lifelike quality of dream experiences: the extent to which dream imagery, sounds, emotions, and sense of presence are experienced as detailed and realistic. Assessed via retrospective self-report scales or prospective dream diary ratings.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between Extraversion and dream vividness. A meta-analysis of 89 studies (n=65,474; k=4 effect sizes) found r=.13 (p<.001; Marin et al., 2026). This association is weaker and more circumscribed than the Openness-vividness link, and may reflect the tendency of extraverted individuals to attend to and report socially engaging or experientially rich dream content.
Attractiveness is the quality of being appealing and arouse interest from others.
Definition
Attractiveness is the quality of being appealing and arouse interest from others.
Research Findings
Anderson et al. (2001) found significant positive correlations (average correlations between .36 and .47; p < .05) between Extraversion and attractiveness among college students.
Dating variety refers to the number of different people dated (going out on a social or romantic engagement with someone) over a period of time.
Definition
Dating variety refers to the number of different people dated (going out on a social or romantic engagement with someone) over a period of time.
Research Findings
In a study of hundereds of university students, Paunonen (2003) found a significant positive relationship (p < .01) between scores on measures extraversion and higher data variety (larger number of dates with different people in the last year).
Romantic satisfaction refers to married partners evaluations of the romantic relationship.
Definition
Romantic satisfaction refers to married partners evaluations of the romantic relationship.
Research Findings
In a study of 74 married and 136 dating couples, Watson (2000) found significant positive relationship between extraversion and relationship satisfaction (p < .01), but only for married couples.
Peer status refers to relationships within a peer group network using measures such as peer acceptance (one peer nominates another as a friend) and friendship (two peers nominate each other as friends). Status often refers to differences in prominence, respect, and influence among members of a group.
Definition
Peer status refers to relationships within a peer group network using measures such as peer acceptance (one peer nominates another as a friend) and friendship (two peers nominate each other as friends). Status often refers to differences in prominence, respect, and influence among members of a group.
Research Findings
Anderson et al. (2001) found significant positive correlations over time between Extraversion and peer status among male (p< .01) and female (p < .05) college students.
Peer acceptance refers to relationships within a peer group network where one peer positively acknowledges another (e.g., nominates another person as a friend).
Definition
Peer acceptance refers to relationships within a peer group network where one peer positively acknowledges another (e.g., nominates another person as a friend).
Research Findings
In a study of over 200 fifth and sixth grade students, Jensen-Campbell et al. (2002), found a significant positive relationship between scores on extraversion and peer acceptance (p < .01).
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Definition
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Research Findings
Research shows that parental Extraversion is positively, if modestly, associated with greater behavioral control, the provision of consistent structure and positive discipline. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (12 studies; n=1,930 dyads) found r=.10 (p<.01). More extraverted parents report less laxness and more reinforcement of positive behavior in their children. This may reflect the sociability and assertiveness characteristic of extraversion facilitating active, structured engagement during disciplinary encounters (Prinzie et al., 2009).
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Definition
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Research Findings
Research shows that higher parental Extraversion is associated with greater warmth and responsiveness in parenting, albeit with a modest effect size. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (17 studies; n=3,778 dyads) found a small but significant positive association (r=.14, p<.001). Both mother and father reports yielded consistent positive effect sizes. This link is explained by the characteristic positive affect and sociability of extraverted individuals, which appear to translate into more stimulating, engaged, and emotionally warm parenting behavior (Prinzie et al., 2009; Prinzie et al., 2019 review). Notably, extraversion was the only Big Five trait that lost statistical significance for maternal control after adjusting for all five traits simultaneously in McCabe's (2014) multivariate meta-analysis.
According to Hollands RIASEC model, Social occupational interests include persuading, manipulating, or directing others (Holland, 1996).
Definition
According to Hollands RIASEC model, Social occupational interests include persuading, manipulating, or directing others (Holland, 1996).
Research Findings
Larson et al. (2002) and Barrick et al. (2003) both find meta-analytic evidence to suggest that those who score high on Extraversion are likely to express interest in Enterprising occupations.
Leadership behavior involves inspiring the support of followers to cooperate and take action.
Definition
Leadership behavior involves inspiring the support of followers to cooperate and take action.
Research Findings
Among a group of 316 potential community leaders, Judge & Bono (2000) found a significant correlation between Extraversion and higher scores of transformational leadership (p < .01).
The psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to an occupation.
Definition
The psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to an occupation.
Research Findings
Thoresen et al. (2003) found meta-analytic evidence of a strong positive relationship between extraversion and organizational commitment.
Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job / work experiences.
Definition
Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job / work experiences.
Research Findings
Thoresen et al. (2003) found meta-analytic evidence of a strong positive relationship between extraversion and job satisfaction.
According to Hollands RIASEC model, Social occupational interests include helping, teaching, treating, counseling, or serving others through personal interaction (Holland, 1996).
Definition
According to Hollands RIASEC model, Social occupational interests include helping, teaching, treating, counseling, or serving others through personal interaction (Holland, 1996).
Research Findings
Larson et al. (2002) and Barrick et al. (2003) both find meta-analytic evidence to suggest that those who score high on Extraversion are likely to express interest in Social occupations.
Volunteerism involves planned prosocial behavior benefitting strangers.
Definition
Volunteerism involves planned prosocial behavior benefitting strangers.
Research Findings
In a study of ~800 college students, Carlo et al. (2005) found a significant correlation between higher scores in extraversion and self-reported volunteer behavior (p < .01). In an online survey of 1,100 people, Penner (2002) found a similar relationship between volunteerism and helpfulness (p < .001) which is strongly associated with Extraversion.
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Definition
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Research Findings
In a study of over 100,000 participants, controlling for socioeconomic factors, G?tz et al. (2020), found conscientiousness to be positively associated with sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic (p < .001).