Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121(2), 219–245.
Openness refers to a receptiveness to new ideas, approaches, and experiences.
These facets represent sub-dimensions of the overall Openness trait.
Adventurousness is a willingness to try different activities and go to new places.
Artistic Interets refers to a deep appreciation for art and natural and artificial beauty.
Emotionality refers to one’s own inner feelings and recognition of emotion as an important part of life.
Imagination refers to having a vivid and creative ability to form new ideas, images, or concepts of external objects not present to the senses.
Intellect refers to intellectual curiosity (not intellectual ability); a deep and persistent desire to know and understand foundational ideas.
Liberalism refers to a readiness to reexamine social, political, and religious values.
According to Marcia (1980), identity foreclosure refers to individuals who have committed to a set of occupational and ideological positions (beliefs, attitudes, values), but arrived at these positions through inheritance from external influence [rather than internal reflection]
Definition
According to Marcia (1980), identity foreclosure refers to individuals who have committed to a set of occupational and ideological positions (beliefs, attitudes, values), but arrived at these positions through inheritance from external influence [rather than internal reflection]
Research Findings
In a study of approximately 200 undergraduate students, Clancy & Dollinger (1993) found a significant negative relationship between openness and foreclosed identity status (r = -.50; p < .001)
A persons identity refers to a self-structure: an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and individual history (Marcia, 1980). Identity integration and consolidation are processes of reconciling various roles, responsibilities, and contexts to construct a coherent identity.
Definition
A persons identity refers to a self-structure: an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and individual history (Marcia, 1980). Identity integration and consolidation are processes of reconciling various roles, responsibilities, and contexts to construct a coherent identity.
Research Findings
In a longitudinal study of 96 married women, Pals (1999) found a negative corelation between Openness and a measure of married identity consolidation, but only for those who described marriage as an anchor of their identity (p < .05) [there was a significant positive correlation among participants whose marriage defined their identity (p < .05)].
Cultural identification refers to an individuals sense of belonging to a certain cultural group (e.g., Canadian, American, or Chinese).
Definition
Cultural identification refers to an individuals sense of belonging to a certain cultural group (e.g., Canadian, American, or Chinese).
Research Findings
In a group of ~160 graduate students with Chinese ancestry, Ryder et al. (2000) found a significant positive relationship between scores in Openness and higher degree of identification with the dominant mainstream culture (p < .01).
Inspiration refers to the process of being mentally stimulated to do something and may involve the following characteristics: transcendence (larger than normal concerns), evocation (unwilled), and motivation (desire to make manifest) (Thrash & Elliott, 2004).
Definition
Inspiration refers to the process of being mentally stimulated to do something and may involve the following characteristics: transcendence (larger than normal concerns), evocation (unwilled), and motivation (desire to make manifest) (Thrash & Elliott, 2004).
Research Findings
Among an undergraduate participang group, Thrash & Elliot (2004) found a significant positive relationship (p < .01) between higher scores in Openness and Inspiration.
Spiritual concern refers to an individuals interest in the nature of social constructs labeled spiritual, religious, peak, mystical, transpersonal, transcendent, or numinous.
Definition
Spiritual concern refers to an individuals interest in the nature of social constructs labeled spiritual, religious, peak, mystical, transpersonal, transcendent, or numinous.
Research Findings
In a study of over 500 university students, MacDonald (2000) found a significant positive relationship between openness and several dimensions of spirituality, including: cognitive orientation towards spirituality (beliefs, attitudes, perceptions), experiential / phenomenological, and paranormal beliefs (concepts beyond the scope of normal scientific understanding such as ESP, precognition, psychokinesis).
Substance abuse refers to use of drugs or alcohol to the extent that it interferes with normal social behavior.
Definition
Substance abuse refers to use of drugs or alcohol to the extent that it interferes with normal social behavior.
Research Findings
In a study of 468 young adults, Trull & Sher (1994) found a strong relationship between Openness and forms of substance abuse, including: excessive alcohol use (p < .01), and drug use (p < .001).
Verbal fluency is the ability to produce correct examples from a specific category. It is a cognitive task that relies on verbal knowledge, inhibition of similar words from a different semantic category, and tracking / memory of words that have already been produced.
Definition
Verbal fluency is the ability to produce correct examples from a specific category. It is a cognitive task that relies on verbal knowledge, inhibition of similar words from a different semantic category, and tracking / memory of words that have already been produced.
Research Findings
In a meta-analysis of 10 studies with combined participation of over 80,000 participants, Sutin et al. (2019) found that higher openness is related to greater verbal fluency (p < .001; indpemendent of academic achievement)
General intelligence (g): the common factor underlying performance across diverse cognitive ability tests, encompassing fluid reasoning, crystallized knowledge, verbal ability, and nonverbal problem-solving.
Definition
General intelligence (g): the common factor underlying performance across diverse cognitive ability tests, encompassing fluid reasoning, crystallized knowledge, verbal ability, and nonverbal problem-solving.
Research Findings
Research shows Openness is the strongest Big Five predictor of general intelligence, with a meta-analytic correlation of r=.17 (p<.001) across 209 studies (N=112,737; Anglim et al., 2022). Reliability-corrected estimates place the true population correlation at ρ=.20. Openness correlates more strongly with crystallized than fluid intelligence (r=.247 vs. r=.170; Δr=.079, p<.001; Anglim et al., 2022), suggesting that intellectual curiosity drives knowledge accumulation over time. Cross-national PIAAC data (N=67,927, 12 countries) confirmed the pattern: Openness was the strongest domain-level predictor of cognitive ability (β=.17 for literacy; Rammstedt et al., 2026). Ackerman & Heggestad (1997; N=64,592) likewise identified Openness and Typical Intellectual Engagement (TIE) as uniquely positively linked to Gc and Ideational Fluency. Facet-level analysis reveals differential contributions: Intellectual Curiosity/Ideas (r=.25, p<.001) and Openness to Values (r=.16, p<.001) are strongest, while Creative Imagination shows no significant association (β=−.01; Rammstedt et al., 2026; Anglim et al., 2022). Using the Big Five Aspect Scales, the Intellect aspect predicts both verbal and nonverbal intelligence equally (β=.31 and .26), while the Openness aspect predicts only verbal intelligence independently (β=.26, p<.01; DeYoung et al., 2014).
Sophisticated musical styles feature inspiring, complex, and dynamic attributes, prevalent in classical, operatic, avant-garde, and traditional jazz genres.
Definition
Sophisticated musical styles feature inspiring, complex, and dynamic attributes, prevalent in classical, operatic, avant-garde, and traditional jazz genres.
Research Findings
Research on musical preferences across cultures, utilizing an audio-based measure of preferential reactions to music, indicates a positive association between Openness to Experience and preferences for Sophisticated music. Specifically, a study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=.20 (p<.00001) between Openness and Sophisticated music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings.
Contemporary musical styles represent music with rhythmic, upbeat, and electronic attributes, found in genres such as rap, electronica, Latin, and Euro-pop.
Definition
Contemporary musical styles represent music with rhythmic, upbeat, and electronic attributes, found in genres such as rap, electronica, Latin, and Euro-pop.
Research Findings
Research on musical preferences across cultures, utilizing an audio-based measure of preferential reactions to music, indicates a positive association between Openness to Experience and preferences for Contemporary music. A study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=.12 (p<.00001) between Openness and Contemporary music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. However, earlier research using active listening data from 8,098 participants found a negative association, r=−.11 (p<.001), between Openness and Contemporary music (Nave et al., 2018). The more recent cross-cultural study's findings are prioritized due to its broader sample and audio-based methodology.
Mellow musical styles feature romantic, slow, and quiet attributes, typically found in genres like soft rock, R&B, and adult contemporary.
Definition
Mellow musical styles feature romantic, slow, and quiet attributes, typically found in genres like soft rock, R&B, and adult contemporary.
Research Findings
Research on musical preferences across cultures, utilizing an audio-based measure of preferential reactions to music, indicates a negative association between Openness to Experience and preferences for Mellow music. A study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=−.03 (p<.01) between Openness and Mellow music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. This finding is consistent with earlier research using active listening data from 8,097 participants, which found a negative association of r=−.12 (p<.001) (Nave et al., 2018). It contrasts with a previous genre-based study within the same cross-cultural research, which found a positive correlation of r=.19 (p<.00001) (Greenberg et al., 2022). The audio-based methodology is prioritized for its ecological validity.
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Definition
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Research Findings
Research shows a small-to-medium positive association between Openness and healthy eating (r = .13, 95% CI [.07, .18], k = 18, n = 15,541): the largest effect size of any trait for overall diet quality. Trim-and-fill analysis with one imputed effect left the estimate unchanged (r = .13), confirming robustness to publication bias (Allen et al., 2025). High openness was additionally associated with greater fruit and vegetable intake, higher fiber consumption, lower meat consumption (pooled across the largest sample in the meta-analysis, n = 104,056), greater dietary restraint, and, paradoxically, slightly more emotional eating, which the authors attribute to more open individuals being more expressive and responsive to internal emotional states.
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Definition
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Research Findings
Research shows a small but statistically significant positive association between Openness and physical activity, representing a new finding not supported in earlier literature. An earlier meta-analysis of 12 samples (total n = 2,651) found a summary r = 0.08 with no significant moderators, and only 2 of 12 studies showed a significant relationship (Rhodes & Smith, 2006). However, a larger systematic review of 51 effects from 64 studies (n = 88,400) found a significant mean r = 0.034 (95% CI: 0.013–0.056, p < 0.01), providing new evidence for this relationship (Wilson & Dishman, 2015). The effect was moderated by experimental demand (r = 0.100 with vs. r = 0.020 without, p < 0.01), and by an interaction between gender and physical activity measurement quality. Effects were largest among males (r = 0.048, p < 0.05) and in prospective designs (r = 0.069, p < 0.01) compared to cross-sectional studies (r = 0.023). This finding is notable because Openness (characterized by curiosity, receptivity to new experiences, and imagination) may predispose individuals to explore novel forms of physical activity, though the effect remains the smallest and least consistent of the significant Big Five–physical activity associations.
Nightmare frequency refers to how often an individual experiences nightmares; intensely negative dreams that typically awaken the sleeper and leave behind strong feelings of fear, distress, or lingering unease. Assessed via retrospective self-report rating scales (e.g., 8-point scales ranging from 'never' to 'several times a week').
Definition
Nightmare frequency refers to how often an individual experiences nightmares; intensely negative dreams that typically awaken the sleeper and leave behind strong feelings of fear, distress, or lingering unease. Assessed via retrospective self-report rating scales (e.g., 8-point scales ranging from 'never' to 'several times a week').
Research Findings
Research shows a small but reliable positive association between Openness to Experience and nightmare frequency. A meta-analysis of 89 studies (n=65,474; k=16 effect sizes) yielded an overall r=.12 (p<.001; Marin et al., 2026). An online survey of n=2,492 German adults further confirmed this relationship via ordinal regression (standardized estimate=.136, χ²=43.3, p<.0001; Schredl & Göritz, 2019). Notably, this Openness effect is distinct from—and additive to—the Neuroticism effect: the two traits appear to operate through different mechanisms, with Openness linked to greater cognitive-perceptual engagement with dream content (exposure/awareness) and Neuroticism linked to emotional reactivity and distress. The relationship between Openness and nightmare frequency is also partially explained by boundary thinness, a construct closely related to Openness (McCrae, 1994; Schredl & Göritz, 2019). This Openness-nightmare link is unique among the Big Five: unlike Neuroticism, Openness does not significantly predict nightmare distress, suggesting it amplifies awareness of nightmares rather than their emotional impact.
Lucid dreaming frequency refers to how often an individual experiences lucid dreams - dreams in which the dreamer is aware, while dreaming, that they are in a dream state, sometimes accompanied by the ability to influence or direct the dream narrative. Assessed via retrospective rating scales or prospective dream diaries.
Definition
Lucid dreaming frequency refers to how often an individual experiences lucid dreams - dreams in which the dreamer is aware, while dreaming, that they are in a dream state, sometimes accompanied by the ability to influence or direct the dream narrative. Assessed via retrospective rating scales or prospective dream diaries.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between Openness to Experience and lucid dreaming frequency. A meta-analysis of 89 studies (n=65,474; k=13 effect sizes) found r=.13 (p<.001; Marin et al., 2026). A student sample (n=444) using the NEO-PI-R found a non-significant correlation for overall Openness (r=.058, p=.114), but significant associations for the 'fantasy' facet (r=.115, p=.008) and 'ideas' facet (r=.108, p=.012; Schredl & Erlacher, 2004). These facet-level findings suggest it is the imaginative and intellectually curious dimensions of Openness — rather than aesthetic sensitivity or openness to feelings that drive the lucid dreaming link. Critically, this relationship is substantially mediated by dream recall frequency: when recall is controlled, the Openness-lucid dreaming correlation is significantly reduced (Schredl & Erlacher, 2004), suggesting that higher-Openness individuals may experience more lucid dreams partly because they recall more dreams overall.
Dream vividness refers to the sensory richness, perceptual clarity, and lifelike quality of dream experiences: the extent to which dream imagery, sounds, emotions, and sense of presence are experienced as detailed and realistic. Assessed via retrospective self-report scales or prospective dream diary ratings.
Definition
Dream vividness refers to the sensory richness, perceptual clarity, and lifelike quality of dream experiences: the extent to which dream imagery, sounds, emotions, and sense of presence are experienced as detailed and realistic. Assessed via retrospective self-report scales or prospective dream diary ratings.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between Openness to Experience and dream vividness. A meta-analysis of 89 studies (n=65,474; k=3 effect sizes) found r=.19 (p<.001; Marin et al., 2026). Extraversion also showed a significant association (r=.13, p<.001; k=4), but Openness is considered the theoretically primary predictor, reflecting imaginative engagement and perceptual sensitivity to internal experience. This association is consistent with the broader pattern linking Openness to cognitive-perceptual engagement with dreams: high-Openness individuals appear to notice, encode, and elaborate dream content more richly.
Dream recall frequency refers to how often an individual is able to remember their dreams upon waking. Assessed via retrospective rating scales (e.g., 7-point scales from 'never' to 'almost every morning') or prospective dream diaries. It is considered the 'gateway' to all other dream research domains, as dreams can only be studied once remembered.
Definition
Dream recall frequency refers to how often an individual is able to remember their dreams upon waking. Assessed via retrospective rating scales (e.g., 7-point scales from 'never' to 'almost every morning') or prospective dream diaries. It is considered the 'gateway' to all other dream research domains, as dreams can only be studied once remembered.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between Openness to Experience and dream recall frequency. A meta-analysis of 89 studies (n=65,474; k=20 effect sizes) found r=.13 (p<.001; Marin et al., 2026). A student sample (n=444) using the NEO-PI-R found Openness correlated with dream recall at r=.133 (p=.0026; Schredl & Erlacher, 2004). Crucially, this relationship is partially mediated by specific Openness facets: the 'fantasy' and 'ideas' facets showed the strongest correlations with recall (r=.178 and r=.086 respectively, p<.05) rather than Openness as a global construct (Schredl & Erlacher, 2004). This suggests the recall-Openness link reflects imagination and intellectual curiosity rather than all facets of open experience.
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Definition
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between parental Openness and behavioral control. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (10 studies; n=1,735 dyads) found r=.10 (p<.01). Open parents appear more inclined to set and enforce reasonable expectations in a creative, reasoned manner, rather than through rigid authoritarianism. This is consistent with the trait's core features of intellectual curiosity and flexibility, which may facilitate adaptive responses to child behavior (Prinzie et al., 2009). McCabe (2014) replicated this positive association.
Autonomy support refers to parental behaviors that encourage children's independent exploration, self-expression, and goal formulation. Its conceptual opposite, coercion or psychological control, is characterized by intrusiveness, overprotection, and high power assertion.
Definition
Autonomy support refers to parental behaviors that encourage children's independent exploration, self-expression, and goal formulation. Its conceptual opposite, coercion or psychological control, is characterized by intrusiveness, overprotection, and high power assertion.
Research Findings
Research shows that Openness to Experience is positively associated with parental autonomy support, a finding that is especially pronounced in longitudinal designs. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (15 studies; n=2,607 dyads) found r=.14 (p<.05). Study design was a significant moderator: longitudinal studies yielded r=.21 versus r=.03 for cross-sectional studies (Q[1,13]=5.05, p<.05). After trim-and-fill adjustment for significant funnel plot asymmetry, the cross-sectional effect became nonsignificant. Open parents appear to value and model independent inquiry, facilitating children's autonomous exploration. Additionally, Spinath and O'Connor (2003) found that Openness (inversely) predicted over-protective parenting (r=−.23, p<.05) in a German twin study (n=196), with the association mediated by shared environmental factors—a unique finding not replicated elsewhere.
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Definition
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Research Findings
Research shows that parental Openness to Experience is positively, if modestly, associated with parental warmth. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (15 studies; n=2,029 dyads) found r=.16 (p<.05), though a file-drawer problem was detected and no significant funnel plot asymmetry was found. Open parents tend to provide more intellectually stimulating, curious, and emotionally engaged caregiving (Prinzie et al., 2019 review). A behavioural-genetic study (Spinath & O'Connor, 2003; n=196 German twin parents) added a novel finding: Openness was negatively associated with over-protective parenting (r=−.23, p<.05), and this association was mediated by shared environmental factors—suggesting that early family-of-origin experiences shape both trait Openness and parenting tendencies simultaneously.
According to Hollands RIASEC model, artistic occupational interests which include activities involving literature, music, and art (Holland, 1996).
Definition
According to Hollands RIASEC model, artistic occupational interests which include activities involving literature, music, and art (Holland, 1996).
Research Findings
Larson et al. (2002) and Barrick et al. (2003) both find meta-analytic evidence that those who score high on Extraversion are likely to express interest in artistic occupations.
According to Hollands RIASEC model, Investigative occupational interests include activities involving exploration, understanding and prediction or control of natural and social phenomena (Holland, 1996).
Definition
According to Hollands RIASEC model, Investigative occupational interests include activities involving exploration, understanding and prediction or control of natural and social phenomena (Holland, 1996).
Research Findings
Larson et al. (2002) and Barrick et al. (2003) both find meta-analytic evidence to suggest that those who score high on Extraversion are likely to express interest in investigative occupations.
Conservatism is generally associated with the values of freedom [over equality], security, power, achievement, conformity, and tradition.
Definition
Conservatism is generally associated with the values of freedom [over equality], security, power, achievement, conformity, and tradition.
Research Findings
In a study of 225 adults, Van Hiel et al. (2004) found a significant negative relationship (-.25; p < .01) between openness and general conservatism.
Right-wing authoritarianism encapsulates behavior that is submissive to authorities, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism. It is thought that this behavior may manifest as aggression towards outgroups.
Definition
Right-wing authoritarianism encapsulates behavior that is submissive to authorities, authoritarian aggression, and conventionalism. It is thought that this behavior may manifest as aggression towards outgroups.
Research Findings
In a study of isms, Saucier (2000) found a negative relationship (-.48) between openness and right-wing authoritarianism. In a study with undergraduate participants, Heaven & Bucci (2001) also found a significant negative relationship between openness and right-wing authoritarianism (-.39; p < .001).
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Definition
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Research Findings
In a study of over 100,000 participants, controlling for socioeconomic factors, G?tz et al. (2020), found openness to be positively associated with sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic (p < .001).
Masking refers to the practice of wearing a face covering when in the presence of other people, as a method to prevent the spread of airborne diseases.
Definition
Masking refers to the practice of wearing a face covering when in the presence of other people, as a method to prevent the spread of airborne diseases.
Research Findings
In a study of over 500 participants, collected between March 24-26, 2020, Milad & Bogg (2021) directly measured personality and mask usage rates and found openness to be positively associated with mask wearing during the COVID-19 pandemic (p < .05 ). Heyman (2021)used state-level data in the U.S. from 250,000 survey responding between July 2-14, 2020 to indirectly measure differences in aggregate levels of openness and mask wearing by state and found that states with populations higher in opnness to be more likely to respond that they 'always wear masks' (p<.0005).