Allen, M. S., Mishra, M., Tashjian, S. M., & Laborde, S. (2025). Linking Big Five personality traits to components of diet: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 128(4), 905–929.
The trait of Conscientiousness is concerned with organization and achievement; the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses; prudence.
These facets represent sub-dimensions of the overall Conscientiousness trait.
Achievement-striving means working hard to achieve goals and striving for excellence.
Cautiousness is the tendency to think carefully and be planful; deliberately thinking through possibilities before acting.
Dutifulness is the tendency to be perceieved as reliable, adhere to their ethical principles, adhere to standards of conduct, and scrupulously fulfill their duty and moral obligations.
Orderliness refers to the tendency to be neat, tidy, and well-organized.
Self-Discipline refers to the ability to begin difficult or unpleasant tasks and persevere, persist, and carry them through to completion despite boredom or other distractions.
Self-Efficacy is the sense that one is capable, competent, sensible, prudent, effective, and confident in their ability to accomplish things.
Cultural identification refers to an individuals sense of belonging to a certain cultural group (e.g., Canadian, American, or Chinese).
Definition
Cultural identification refers to an individuals sense of belonging to a certain cultural group (e.g., Canadian, American, or Chinese).
Research Findings
In a group of ~160 graduate students with Chinese ancestry, Ryder et al. (2000) found a significant positive relationship between scores in Conscientiousness and higher degree of identification with cultural heritage (p < .05).
According to Marcia (1980), identity achievement is the identity status aligned with people who have experienced a decision-making period and are pursuing self-chosen occupation and ideological goals (in contrast to identity status types of foreclosure, identity diffusion, and moratorium).
Definition
According to Marcia (1980), identity achievement is the identity status aligned with people who have experienced a decision-making period and are pursuing self-chosen occupation and ideological goals (in contrast to identity status types of foreclosure, identity diffusion, and moratorium).
Research Findings
In a survey of ~200 undergraduate students, Clancy & Dollinger (1993) found a significant positive relationship indicating that higher scores in Conscientiousness are related to higher scores in identity achievement.
MacDonald (2000) defined Religious / Spiritual concerns as a five component construct, including: cognitive orientation (perceptions and attitudes toward religious experience); experiential (mystical, transcendental, and transpersonal experiences); existential well-being (a sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience regarding ones existence); and religiousness (religious practice).
Definition
MacDonald (2000) defined Religious / Spiritual concerns as a five component construct, including: cognitive orientation (perceptions and attitudes toward religious experience); experiential (mystical, transcendental, and transpersonal experiences); existential well-being (a sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience regarding ones existence); and religiousness (religious practice).
Research Findings
In a study of 993 undergraduates, Macdonald (2000) demonstrate a significant relationship between Conscientiousness and two dimenstions of Expressions of Spirituality: Cognitive Orientation Towards Spirituality (.26; p < .001; perceptions and attitudes regarding spirituality) and Religousness (.21; p < .001; religious practices).
Risky behavior (e.g., substance abuse, hazardous driving, unprotected sex with multiple partners, attempted suicide) increases the likelihood of negative health outcomes. Longevity refers to the length of an individuals life.
Definition
Risky behavior (e.g., substance abuse, hazardous driving, unprotected sex with multiple partners, attempted suicide) increases the likelihood of negative health outcomes. Longevity refers to the length of an individuals life.
Research Findings
Meta-analysis from Bogg (2004) demonstrates a strong negative correlation between higher scores in Conscientiousness and more risky behavior. In a longitudinal study of intelligent children, Friedman (1995) found that Conscientiousness predicted longevity: those who scored higher were about 30% less likely to die in any given year.
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Definition
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Research Findings
Research shows a small-to-medium positive association between Conscientiousness and healthy eating (r = .12, 95% CI [.08, .16], k = 19, n = 15,732), one of the two largest trait effects alongside Openness. Trim-and-fill analysis confirmed robustness to publication bias (Allen et al., 2025). High conscientiousness was additionally associated with greater fruit and vegetable intake, higher low-fat food consumption, lower fast food intake, substantially less emotional eating (medium effect, r = −.17), greater dietary restraint, and more regular meal timing, the most comprehensive pattern of healthy eating behaviors of any single trait.
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Definition
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Research Findings
Research shows a positive relationship between Conscientiousness and physical activity level. A meta-analysis of 12 samples (n = 2,697) found 9 significant positive results and a summary r = 0.20 (Rhodes & Smith, 2006). This was extended in a larger review of 69 effects from 64 studies (n = 88,400), which reported a significant mean r = 0.104 (95% CI: 0.084–0.124, p < 0.01; Wilson & Dishman, 2015). The relationship was stronger in prospective designs (r = 0.153) than cross-sectional designs (r = 0.084) and was moderated by experimental demand: when participants were asked to state their intentions prior to the activity period, effects were substantially inflated (r ≈ 0.199 vs. r ≈ 0.072 without demand). This is consistent with the theory that conscientious individuals are particularly responsive to intention-prompting because they are predisposed to follow through on stated plans. A 2025 laboratory study (n = 132) provided objective corroboration, finding that Conscientiousness predicted self-reported weekly physical activity hours (β = 0.62, p = 0.002, R²adj = 0.11), as well as lower body fat percentage (β = −0.56, p = 0.039) and longer plank duration (β = 3.97, p = 0.046), independent of sex and age (Ronca et al., 2025). Only Conscientiousness was a significant predictor of membership in an endurance club (OR = 1.28, p = 0.021).
Sleep quality refers to the subjective experience and objective characteristics of sleep, including ease of onset, continuity (minimal awakenings), duration adequacy, and feeling rested upon waking. Commonly assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a global score ≥5 indicating poor sleep quality.
Definition
Sleep quality refers to the subjective experience and objective characteristics of sleep, including ease of onset, continuity (minimal awakenings), duration adequacy, and feeling rested upon waking. Commonly assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a global score ≥5 indicating poor sleep quality.
Research Findings
Research shows a consistent negative association between conscientiousness and poor sleep quality, indicating that more conscientious individuals tend to sleep better. Guerreiro et al. (2024) synthesized seven studies and reported correlations with poor sleep quality (PSQI) ranging from r=−0.095 to r=−0.28 (all p<.01). Notably, Križan et al. (2019; N=382, U.S.; adjective-based assessment, self-report sleep) found r=−0.28 (p<.001), the strongest effect in the review. Duggan et al. (2014; N=436 students; r=−0.17, p<.001) and Allen et al. (2016; N=14,317; r=−0.12, p<.001) replicated the finding across diverse samples. Longitudinal evidence from Stephan et al. (2018; N=22,728) further showed that higher conscientiousness was associated with improvement in sleep quality over a 4-year follow-up (β=−0.02, p<.05 in the meta-analytic summary), though findings at baseline were inconsistent across the four samples. Proposed mechanisms include better stress buffering, adherence to regular sleep routines and sleep hygiene practices (consistent schedules, avoiding caffeine), lower BMI, reduced smoking, and more favorable nocturnal blood pressure dipping (Stephan et al., 2018; Guerreiro et al., 2024). Conscientiousness associations were most robust in U.S. samples and less apparent in a Japanese cohort, suggesting potential cultural moderation.
Chronotype refers to an individual's biological preference for the timing of sleep and wakefulness. Morning types naturally prefer earlier sleep and wake times; evening types prefer later schedules. Assessed via MEQ (Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire) or MCTQ (Munich Chronotype Questionnaire).
Definition
Chronotype refers to an individual's biological preference for the timing of sleep and wakefulness. Morning types naturally prefer earlier sleep and wake times; evening types prefer later schedules. Assessed via MEQ (Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire) or MCTQ (Munich Chronotype Questionnaire).
Research Findings
Of all Big Five traits, conscientiousness shows the strongest and most consistent association with morningness (a preference for earlier wake and sleep times). Guerreiro et al. (2024) synthesized five studies and reported moderate positive correlations (effect sizes r=0.16–0.35, all p<.001). Duggan et al. (2014; N=436 U.S. students; Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire [MEQ]; r=0.35, p<.001) and Muzni et al. (2021; N=671, UK; r=0.336, p<.0001) found the strongest effects. Lenneis et al. (2021; N=2,515, Estonia; Munich Chronotype Questionnaire [MCTQ]; r=0.16 [0.12–0.20], p<.001) and Zajenkowski et al. (2019; N=504, Poland; Composite Scale of Morningness [CSM]; r=0.26, p<.001) replicated these results across cultures. This association is uniquely specific to conscientiousness among the Big Five; while neuroticism reliably predicts eveningness and poor sleep quality, conscientiousness is the primary trait driving morningness preference. Individuals high in conscientiousness are self-disciplined and organized, traits that support consistent, structured sleep schedules aligned with earlier wake times (Guerreiro et al., 2024).
Substance abuse refers to use of drugs or alcohol to the extent that it interferes with normal social behavior.
Definition
Substance abuse refers to use of drugs or alcohol to the extent that it interferes with normal social behavior.
Research Findings
Meta-analysis from Bogg (2004) demonstrates a negative correlation (p < .05) between higher scores in Conscientiousness and various types of substance abuse, including: excessive alcohol use (-.25), drug use (-.28), and tobacco use (-.14).
Intense musical styles are characterized by distorted, loud, and aggressive attributes, common in classic rock, punk, heavy metal, and power pop genres.
Definition
Intense musical styles are characterized by distorted, loud, and aggressive attributes, common in classic rock, punk, heavy metal, and power pop genres.
Research Findings
Research consistently indicates a negative association between Conscientiousness and preferences for Intense musical styles. A study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=−.09 (p<.00001) between Conscientiousness and Intense music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. Further supporting this, research using Spotify streaming data from 5,808 users found Conscientiousness negatively correlated with Rock (r=−.079, p<.001) and Alternative (r=−.080, p<.001) genres, which are associated with Intense styles (Anderson et al., 2021).
Unpretentious musical styles are defined by uncomplicated, relaxing, and unaggressive attributes, often heard in country genres.
Definition
Unpretentious musical styles are defined by uncomplicated, relaxing, and unaggressive attributes, often heard in country genres.
Research Findings
Research on musical preferences across cultures, utilizing an audio-based measure of preferential reactions to music, indicates a positive association between Conscientiousness and preferences for Unpretentious music. A study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=.01 (p<.01) between Conscientiousness and Unpretentious music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings.
Family satisfaction in this context refers to quality of dyadic relationships between intergenerational family members (e.g., parent-child).
Definition
Family satisfaction in this context refers to quality of dyadic relationships between intergenerational family members (e.g., parent-child).
Research Findings
Belsky et al. (2003) found a significant positive relationship in the quality of parent-child relationship: relationship quality is more positive when children score higher on conscientiousness/constraint. Relationship quality measures included intergenerational contact, closeness, conflict, and assistance.
Romantic satisfaction refers to dating partners evaluations of the romantic relationship.
Definition
Romantic satisfaction refers to dating partners evaluations of the romantic relationship.
Research Findings
In a study of 136 dating couples, Watson et al. (2000) found a significant positive relationship between relationship satisfaction and Conscentiousness (p < .01).
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Definition
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Research Findings
Research shows that Conscientiousness is the most conceptually coherent predictor of parental behavioral control, reflecting the trait's core features of organization, rule-following, and goal-directedness. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (11 studies; n=1,861 dyads) found r=.11 (p<.01). Highly conscientious parents impose consistent standards, supervise more carefully, and use positive discipline such as limit-setting and reinforcement (Prinzie et al., 2019 review; McCabe, 2014). The effect was not moderated by parent gender, child gender, or assessment method (Prinzie et al., 2009). Notably, the association with behavioral control was stronger relative to warmth in multivariate analyses, suggesting Conscientiousness contributes uniquely to parental structure beyond its overlap with other traits.
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Definition
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Research Findings
Research shows a small but statistically significant positive association between parental Conscientiousness and warmth, though with an important caveat. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (16 studies; n=2,042 dyads) found r=.11 (p<.05), indicating that more conscientious parents engage in more supportive parenting. However, McCabe's (2014) multivariate meta-analysis found the direction reversed when all personality traits were simultaneously modeled, suggesting the positive bivariate link is partly attributable to shared variance with other traits. A curvilinear pattern has also been noted: extremely high Conscientiousness (associated with perfectionism) may paradoxically reduce warmth by imposing standards that are developmentally inappropriate for the child (Prinzie et al., 2019 review).
Antisocial behavior refers to actions that are deemed delinquent, deviant, against social norms, and violate the rights of others.
Definition
Antisocial behavior refers to actions that are deemed delinquent, deviant, against social norms, and violate the rights of others.
Research Findings
In a mail survey study of hundreds of twin participants, Krueger (2001) found a significant negative correlation between lower scores in constraint / conscientiousness and antisocial behavior (-.27, p < .01).
Criminal behavior indicates that someone has participated in an unlawful act (e.g., theft, vandalism, robbery, assault, public endangerment, etc.).
Definition
Criminal behavior indicates that someone has participated in an unlawful act (e.g., theft, vandalism, robbery, assault, public endangerment, etc.).
Research Findings
In an experiment with college undergraduates who were studying criminal justice (n=230), Wiebe (2004) found a significant relationship between lower scores in Agreeableness and Criminal Acts (-.30; p < .01).
Conservatism is generally associated with the values of freedom [over equality], security, power, achievement, conformity, and tradition.
Definition
Conservatism is generally associated with the values of freedom [over equality], security, power, achievement, conformity, and tradition.
Research Findings
In a summary of several related studies looking at thousands of Italian voters, Caprara & Zimbardo (2004) found a significant positive relationship between higher scores in Conscientiousness and endoresement of more right of center political platforms and views.
Extrinsic career success (e.g., salary and promotions) refer to observable rewards from the job.
Definition
Extrinsic career success (e.g., salary and promotions) refer to observable rewards from the job.
Research Findings
In an intergenerational study, Judge et al. (1999) found signficant correlations between Conscientiousness and the following variables related to extrinsic success: Income (.34; p < .01), occupational Status (.48; p < .01), and extrinsic career success (.50; p < .01).
Intrinsic success is measured in terms of an individuals job satisfaction regarding multiple facets of their career (e.g., income, supervision, job security, coworkers).
Definition
Intrinsic success is measured in terms of an individuals job satisfaction regarding multiple facets of their career (e.g., income, supervision, job security, coworkers).
Research Findings
In an intergenerational study, Judge et al. (1999) found a signficant positive correlation between Conscientiousness and job satisfaction (.20; p < .01) and intrinsic career success (.40; p < .01).
Occupational performance refers to employee actions and behaviors that are relevant to an organizations goals and are measurable. Measures include proficiency such as performance ratings and productivity.
Definition
Occupational performance refers to employee actions and behaviors that are relevant to an organizations goals and are measurable. Measures include proficiency such as performance ratings and productivity.
Research Findings
Meta-analytic results from Barrick & Mount (1991) demonstrate a robust positive relationship between scores in Conscientiousness and job performance across occupational types. This finding was reinforced by Barrick et al. (2001) in a meta-analysis of 15 meta-analytic studies, analyzing results of over 100,000 participants, including performance in independent and non-independent samples, during training, and in teams with estimated true score correlations between mid .20s to mid .30s.
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Definition
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Research Findings
In a study of over 100,000 participants, controlling for socioeconomic factors, G?tz et al. (2020), found conscientiousness to be positively associated with sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic (p < .001).