Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality, and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121(2), 219–245.
Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience negative feelings and emotion.
These facets represent sub-dimensions of the overall Neuroticism trait.
Anger is the tendency to feel anger, frustration, and bitterness.
Anxiety represents the tendency to experience free-floating anxiety or fears and more frequent triggering of the 'fight-or-flight' system of the brain.
Depression is the tendency to feel sad, dejected, and discouraged.
Immoderation refers to an inability to control cravings and urges.
Self-Consciousness refers to the tendency to experience shame and embarrassment.
Vulnerability is the tendency to feel overwhelmed or panicked by stress.
Type I Anxiety includes the following categories: generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and social phobia.
Definition
Type I Anxiety includes the following categories: generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and social phobia.
Research Findings
Trull & Sher (1994) found a significant relationship between higher scores in Neuroticism and Axis I Anxiety disorders, especially posttraumatic stress disorder (p < .001)
Major depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest.
Definition
Major depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest.
Research Findings
Trull & Sher (1994) found a significant relationship between higher scores in Neuroticism and Axis I major depression (p < .001)
Coping refers to the ability to overcome a stressful situation. Strategies that are commonly used to cope include: distraction, redefinition, direct action, catharsis, acceptance, social support, relaxation, and religion.
Definition
Coping refers to the ability to overcome a stressful situation. Strategies that are commonly used to cope include: distraction, redefinition, direct action, catharsis, acceptance, social support, relaxation, and religion.
Research Findings
David & Suls (1999) found a moderating effect of Neuroticism on the ability to effectively cope using relaxation and distracting coping techniques (p < .05).
Sleep quality refers to the subjective experience and objective characteristics of sleep, including ease of onset, continuity (minimal awakenings), duration adequacy, and feeling rested upon waking. Commonly assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a global score ≥5 indicating poor sleep quality.
Definition
Sleep quality refers to the subjective experience and objective characteristics of sleep, including ease of onset, continuity (minimal awakenings), duration adequacy, and feeling rested upon waking. Commonly assessed with the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a global score ≥5 indicating poor sleep quality.
Research Findings
Neuroticism is the single strongest and most consistent Big Five predictor of sleep quality across the literature. Stephan et al. (2018) analyzed four longitudinal samples (N=22,728; U.S. and Japan; 4–10 year follow-ups) and found that higher neuroticism predicted worse sleep quality both concurrently (β=0.23 [0.197–0.263], p<.001) and prospectively (β=0.10 [0.089–0.119], p<.001). Effect sizes were larger than those for demographic factors such as age, sex, and education.The 2024 systematic review by Guerreiro et al. synthesized 10 cross-sectional and longitudinal studies (total N=58,812) across 11 countries and reported neuroticism correlations with poor sleep quality (PSQI and related measures) ranging from r=0.183 to r=0.40 (all p<.001), with the largest effect observed by Duggan et al. (2014; N=436, r=0.40, p<.001) and Cellini et al. (2017; N=498, r=0.34, p<.001). Notably, Lau et al. (2021; N=1,276, China) demonstrated that neuroticism predicted sleep quality assessed five years later (r=0.124 [0.04–0.19], p<.001), confirming a prospective link. Mechanistically, neuroticism is associated with heightened stress sensitivity, cognitive hyperarousal (ruminative worry), greater negative affect, and health-risk behaviors (alcohol use, smoking, physical inactivity), all recognized pathways to sleep disturbance (Stephan et al., 2018). Neuroticism is uniquely consistent across cultures and age groups in its relationship with sleep; no other Big Five trait replicates across all studies.
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Definition
A composite index combining multiple dietary components to reflect overall diet quality, typically subtracting unhealthy food consumption from healthy food consumption scores.
Research Findings
Research shows a small but significant negative association between Neuroticism and healthy eating (r = −.05, 95% CI [−.09, −.01], k = 18, n = 15,541), drawn from a random-effects meta-analysis using inverse-variance weighting (Allen et al., 2025). Beyond overall diet quality, high neuroticism was also associated with lower fruit and vegetable intake, reduced consumption of low-fat foods, more frequent emotional eating (the strongest single effect in the entire meta-analysis at r = .42), greater meal irregularity, more frequent meal skipping, increased between-meal snacking, and higher reliance on convenience foods. Notably, the meta-analysis draws on data from a large Australian longitudinal household panel (HILDA; n = 11,133) that tracked personality and dietary behavior across multiple waves, lending particular credibility to the finding that neurotic individuals show persistent disruptions to meal timing and food choices over time.
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Definition
Physical activity level refers to the overall quantity of bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels, typically operationalized as frequency, duration, or volume of leisure-time exercise and structured physical activity across a given period.
Research Findings
Research shows a small but reliable negative association between Neuroticism and physical activity. A meta-analysis of 21 samples (n = 48,049) produced a summary r = −0.11 (95% CI: −0.02 to −0.20) (Rhodes & Smith, 2006). This was extended by a larger systematic review of 82 effects from 64 studies (n = 88,400), which yielded a significant mean r = −0.071 (95% CI: −0.087 to −0.055, p < 0.01; Wilson & Dishman, 2015). The effect was moderately heterogeneous (I² = 57.5%) and showed no significant moderation by study design, age, or clinical status in multilevel models. Notably, this is the only one of the three significant Big Five physical activity predictors for which the effect did not vary after controlling for nested effects, suggesting the Neuroticism–physical activity relationship is relatively consistent across populations and contexts. Mechanistically, high Neuroticism is associated with heightened anxiety, self-consciousness, and negative affect, all of which may inhibit willingness to engage in physical activity. Additionally, Neuroticism is linked to heightened autonomic reactivity to intense stimuli, meaning the physiological response to exercise may be perceived more negatively by high-N individuals (Wilson & Dishman, 2015; Ronca et al., 2025).
Chronotype refers to an individual's biological preference for the timing of sleep and wakefulness. Morning types naturally prefer earlier sleep and wake times; evening types prefer later schedules. Assessed via MEQ (Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire) or MCTQ (Munich Chronotype Questionnaire).
Definition
Chronotype refers to an individual's biological preference for the timing of sleep and wakefulness. Morning types naturally prefer earlier sleep and wake times; evening types prefer later schedules. Assessed via MEQ (Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire) or MCTQ (Munich Chronotype Questionnaire).
Research Findings
Research shows a consistent negative association between neuroticism and morningness, indicating that more neurotic individuals tend toward evening chronotypes (later sleep-wake schedules). Guerreiro et al. (2024) synthesized four studies and found neuroticism correlations with morningness ranging from r=−0.071 to r=−0.20 (all p<.05). Duggan et al. (2014; N=436; r=−0.18, p<.001) and Zajenkowski et al. (2019; N=504; r=−0.20, p<.001) found the largest effects; Muzni et al. (2021; N=671; r=−0.156, p<.0001) and Önder et al. (2014; N=1,343 Turkish students; r=−0.071, p<.05) replicated the pattern. Evening chronotypes associated with high neuroticism tend to be linked to adverse health outcomes, including greater risk of depressive symptoms and cardiometabolic dysregulation. The anxiety and rumination characteristic of high-neuroticism individuals may inhibit natural sleep-onset timing, driving a progressive shift toward eveningness (Guerreiro et al., 2024).
Existential Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience.
Definition
Existential Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals sense of meaning, purpose, and resilience.
Research Findings
In a study of 993 undergraduates, Macdonald (2000) demonstrate a correlation of -.66 (p < .001) between Existential Well-Being and Neuroticism.
The general tendency to appreciate amusement, comedy, jokes, self-referential humor, jests, wit, or sarcasm.
Definition
The general tendency to appreciate amusement, comedy, jokes, self-referential humor, jests, wit, or sarcasm.
Research Findings
In a study of 169 college students, Cann & Calhoun (2001) found a significant negative relationship between humor and Neuroticism: higher scores in Neuroticism were associated with lower scores on the humor scale (p < .05).
A persons identity refers to a self-structure: an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and individual history (Marcia, 1980). Identity integration and consolidation are processes of reconciling various roles, responsibilities, and contexts to construct a coherent identity.
Definition
A persons identity refers to a self-structure: an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs, and individual history (Marcia, 1980). Identity integration and consolidation are processes of reconciling various roles, responsibilities, and contexts to construct a coherent identity.
Research Findings
In a longitudinal study of 96 married women, Pals (1999) found a negative corelation of -.42 (p < .01) between Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism and a measure of married identity consolidation.
Subjective Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals overall evaluation on the quality or their life from their own perspective.
Definition
Subjective Well-Being is a construct that reflects an individuals overall evaluation on the quality or their life from their own perspective.
Research Findings
See Diener & Lucas (2015) for an overview; the Steel, P., Schmidt, J., & Shultz, J. (2008) meta-analysis demonstrate correlations between -.30 and -.50 depending on the facet of subjective well-being (SWB) measured. In a metanalysis of more than 140 studies, DeNeve & Cooper (1998) found a positive correlation between SWB and Extraversion of -.22.
Verbal fluency is the ability to produce correct examples from a specific category. It is a cognitive task that relies on verbal knowledge, inhibition of similar words from a different semantic category, and tracking / memory of words that have already been produced.
Definition
Verbal fluency is the ability to produce correct examples from a specific category. It is a cognitive task that relies on verbal knowledge, inhibition of similar words from a different semantic category, and tracking / memory of words that have already been produced.
Research Findings
In a meta-analysis of 10 studies with combined participation of over 80,000 participants, Sutin et al. (2019) found that neuroticism is negatively related to verbal fluency (p < .001)
General intelligence (g): the common factor underlying performance across diverse cognitive ability tests, encompassing fluid reasoning, crystallized knowledge, verbal ability, and nonverbal problem-solving.
Definition
General intelligence (g): the common factor underlying performance across diverse cognitive ability tests, encompassing fluid reasoning, crystallized knowledge, verbal ability, and nonverbal problem-solving.
Research Findings
Research shows a consistent negative association between Neuroticism and general intelligence, with a meta-analytic correlation of r=−.08 (p<.001) across 203 studies (N=116,515; Anglim et al., 2022). Reliability-corrected estimates place the population correlation at ρ=−.09. The relationship holds across low-stakes and high-stakes testing contexts and across gender compositions, suggesting a substantive latent association rather than a testing artifact. Cross-national PIAAC data (N=67,927) replicated the domain-level effect (β=−.08; Rammstedt et al., 2026). Ackerman & Heggestad (1997; N=64,592) documented Stress Reaction as having pervasive negative correlations across all ability domains. Neuroticism uniquely correlates more strongly with fluid than crystallized intelligence (r=−.102 vs. r=−.075; Anglim et al., 2022) — the reverse of the Openness pattern. At the facet level, Anxiety (r=−.09, p<.001), Vulnerability (r=−.06, p<.01), and Angry Hostility (r=−.06, p<.001) drive the domain effect. In population data, Emotional Volatility is the strongest Neuroticism predictor (β=−.08), while Anxiety shows near-zero associations once other facets are controlled (Rammstedt et al., 2026). The association is substantially amplified in older adult samples (r=−.24 for age 60+; Anglim et al., 2022), consistent with cognitive decline co-occurring with elevated anxiety and depression.
Intense musical styles are characterized by distorted, loud, and aggressive attributes, common in classic rock, punk, heavy metal, and power pop genres.
Definition
Intense musical styles are characterized by distorted, loud, and aggressive attributes, common in classic rock, punk, heavy metal, and power pop genres.
Research Findings
Research consistently indicates a positive association between Neuroticism and preferences for Intense musical styles. A study involving 71,714 participants across 36 countries found a correlation of r=.02 (p<.01) between Neuroticism and Intense music (Greenberg et al., 2022). This large-scale cross-cultural study is notable for its use of unfamiliar musical stimuli to minimize confounding effects from prior associations, thereby enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. Further supporting this, research using Spotify streaming data from 5,808 users found that Emotional Stability (the inverse of Neuroticism) correlated negatively with Brooding (r=−.088, p<.001) and Defiant (r=−.082, p<.001) moods, and Emo music (r=−.155, p<.001), all of which align with characteristics of Intense styles (Anderson et al., 2021).
Nightmare frequency refers to how often an individual experiences nightmares; intensely negative dreams that typically awaken the sleeper and leave behind strong feelings of fear, distress, or lingering unease. Assessed via retrospective self-report rating scales (e.g., 8-point scales ranging from 'never' to 'several times a week').
Definition
Nightmare frequency refers to how often an individual experiences nightmares; intensely negative dreams that typically awaken the sleeper and leave behind strong feelings of fear, distress, or lingering unease. Assessed via retrospective self-report rating scales (e.g., 8-point scales ranging from 'never' to 'several times a week').
Research Findings
Research shows a consistent, weak-to-moderate positive association between Neuroticism and nightmare frequency. A landmark meta-analysis synthesizing 89 studies (n=65,474) found an overall effect of r=.29 (p<.001; k=34 effect sizes), making Neuroticism the single strongest Big Five predictor of nightmare frequency (Marin et al., 2026). An online survey of n=2,492 adults using ordinal regression confirmed Neuroticism as the dominant predictor (standardized estimate=.397, χ²=254.6, p<.0001), accounting for more variance than any other personality or demographic factor (Schredl & Göritz, 2019). This association is uniquely pronounced for Neuroticism compared to all other Big Five traits: while Openness also reaches significance (r=.12, p<.001), the effect is substantially smaller, and Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness do not reach significance in the meta-analytic synthesis (Marin et al., 2026). The pattern supports affective continuity models, which hold that high emotional reactivity and stress sensitivity during waking life are reflected and amplified in sleep content, producing more frequent distressing dreams.
Dream recall frequency refers to how often an individual is able to remember their dreams upon waking. Assessed via retrospective rating scales (e.g., 7-point scales from 'never' to 'almost every morning') or prospective dream diaries. It is considered the 'gateway' to all other dream research domains, as dreams can only be studied once remembered.
Definition
Dream recall frequency refers to how often an individual is able to remember their dreams upon waking. Assessed via retrospective rating scales (e.g., 7-point scales from 'never' to 'almost every morning') or prospective dream diaries. It is considered the 'gateway' to all other dream research domains, as dreams can only be studied once remembered.
Research Findings
Research shows a small positive association between Neuroticism and dream recall frequency. A meta-analysis of 89 studies (n=65,474; k=28 effect sizes) found r=.09 (p<.001; Marin et al., 2026). A student sample (n=444) using the NEO-PI-R found a non-significant correlation of r=.002 (p=.96; Schredl & Erlacher, 2004), illustrating the small and inconsistent nature of this effect at the individual study level. The meta-analytic signal is consistent with affective continuity models: emotionally arousing dreams associated with high Neuroticism may be more memorable and therefore more likely to be recalled.
Romantic abuse refers to physical acts of abuse between romantic partners (e.g., slapping, hitting, forcing sex, etc.).
Definition
Romantic abuse refers to physical acts of abuse between romantic partners (e.g., slapping, hitting, forcing sex, etc.).
Research Findings
In a longitudinal study of New Zealand cohort (n = ~1,000), measured at birth to age 26, Robins et al. (2002) found significant mean correlations (between .23 and .29, depending on age; p < .01) between negative emotionality and relationship abuse.
Romantic conflict refers to sources of disagreement between romantic partners.
Definition
Romantic conflict refers to sources of disagreement between romantic partners.
Research Findings
In a longitudinal study of New Zealand cohort (n = ~1,000), measured at birth to age 26, Robins et al. (2002) found significant mean correlations (between .30 and .35, depending on age; p < .01) between negative emotionality and relationship conflict.
The breakup of a romantic relationship (e.g., separation or divorce).
Definition
The breakup of a romantic relationship (e.g., separation or divorce).
Research Findings
Kelly & Conley (1987) analyzed longitudinal data from married couples over 40 years and found a strong relationship between higher scores on Neuroticism and divorce outcomes.
Romantic satisfaction refers to married partners evaluations of the romantic relationship.
Definition
Romantic satisfaction refers to married partners evaluations of the romantic relationship.
Research Findings
In their meta-analysis, Karney & Bradbury (1995) found aggregate effect-size r of -.13 (husbands) and -.19 (wives) for neuroticism and marital satisfaction.
Relationship quality is the overall health of a relationship, shaped by how well partners communicate, handle conflict, support each other, stay stable over time, and feel satisfied.
Definition
Relationship quality is the overall health of a relationship, shaped by how well partners communicate, handle conflict, support each other, stay stable over time, and feel satisfied.
Research Findings
Evidence from a meta-analysis of 148 studies and 154 independent samples (Esplin et al., 2024) showed a consistent negative link between neuroticism and relationship quality, with an overall correlation of r = −.238 (p < .001). People with mid-level neuroticism typically experience average-quality relationships — not as strained as those with high neuroticism, but not as stable or satisfying as those with low neuroticism. Their overall well-being also tends to be close to average.
Family satisfaction in this context refers to quality of dyadic relationships between intergenerational family members (e.g., parent-child).
Definition
Family satisfaction in this context refers to quality of dyadic relationships between intergenerational family members (e.g., parent-child).
Research Findings
Belsky et al. (2003) found a significant negative relationship in the quality of parent-child relationship: relationship quality is less positive when children score higher on negative emotionality. Relationship quality measures included intergenerational contact, closeness, conflict, and assistance.
Peer status refers to relationships within a peer group network using measures such as peer acceptance (one peer nominates another as a friend) and friendship (two peers nominate each other as friends). Status often refers to differences in prominence, respect, and influence among members of a group.
Definition
Peer status refers to relationships within a peer group network using measures such as peer acceptance (one peer nominates another as a friend) and friendship (two peers nominate each other as friends). Status often refers to differences in prominence, respect, and influence among members of a group.
Research Findings
Anderson et al. (2001) found a significant relationship (zero-order corrrelation of -.31) between Neuroticism / Negative Emotionality and social status among a male fraternity members.
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Definition
Behavioral control (structure) refers to the degree to which parents set clear expectations, supervise, and use consistent and appropriate discipline. It encompasses limit-setting, monitoring, contingent responding to child behavior, and scaffolding of self-regulation.
Research Findings
Research shows that high parental Neuroticism is negatively related to behavioral control, the provision of consistent structure, appropriate limit-setting, and contingent discipline. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (13 studies; n≈2,017 dyads) found r=−.14 (p<.01) between Neuroticism and behavioral control. Parents high in Neuroticism are more prone to lax, unpredictable, or overreactive discipline, undermining the child's self-regulatory development (Prinzie et al., 2009; Prinzie et al., 2019 review). McCabe (2014) replicated this negative association in a further meta-analysis restricted to mothers.
Autonomy support refers to parental behaviors that encourage children's independent exploration, self-expression, and goal formulation. Its conceptual opposite, coercion or psychological control, is characterized by intrusiveness, overprotection, and high power assertion.
Definition
Autonomy support refers to parental behaviors that encourage children's independent exploration, self-expression, and goal formulation. Its conceptual opposite, coercion or psychological control, is characterized by intrusiveness, overprotection, and high power assertion.
Research Findings
Research shows that higher parental Neuroticism is associated with reduced autonomy support and greater psychological control or overprotectiveness. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (21 studies; n=4,843 dyads) found a small but significant negative association (r=−.10, p<.05) between Neuroticism and autonomy support. A behavioural-genetic twin study (Spinath & O'Connor, 2003; n=196 parents) found a distinct, though directionally consistent, link: Openness (inversely related to risk-aversion) predicted lower over-protectiveness (r=−.23), while Neuroticism predicted Rejection (r=.22). Neurotic parents are more likely to attribute malicious intent to child misbehaviour, fuelling coercive responses (Prinzie et al., 2009).
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Definition
Parental warmth refers to the degree to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned, supportive, and responsive to the child's emotional and developmental needs. It encompasses acceptance, affection, positive affect, and sensitivity in parent–child interactions.
Research Findings
Research shows that parents low in Neuroticism (i.e., higher emotional stability) engage in more warm, sensitive, and responsive parenting across child age groups. Prinzie et al. (2009) meta-analysis (n=5,853; 30 studies) found r=−.17 (p<.001) between Neuroticism and warmth, indicating that emotional stability is a meaningful positive resource for warm parenting. Moderator analyses showed the protective effect of emotional stability was stronger for younger children and parents (Prinzie et al., 2009). Spinath and O'Connor (2003) found the Neuroticism–Rejection link (r=.22) was mediated almost entirely by nonshared environmental factors in a twin study of German parents (n=196), suggesting that learned emotional regulation underlies the association.
Antisocial behavior refers to actions that are deemed delinquent, deviant, against social norms, and violate the rights of others.
Definition
Antisocial behavior refers to actions that are deemed delinquent, deviant, against social norms, and violate the rights of others.
Research Findings
In a mail survey study of hundreds of twin participants, Krueger et al. (2001) found a significant correlation of (.28, p < .01) between Negative Emotionality / Neuroticism and Antisocial Behavior.
Extrinsic career success (e.g., salary and promotions) refer to observable rewards from the job.
Definition
Extrinsic career success (e.g., salary and promotions) refer to observable rewards from the job.
Research Findings
In an intergenerational study, Judge et al. (1999) found signficant correlations between Neuroticism and Income (-.32; p < .05) and Neuroticism and Occupational Status (-.27; p < .01), and extrinsic success (-.34, p < .01).
Financial security refers to the degree that people perceive that their earnings are adequate for their needs.
Definition
Financial security refers to the degree that people perceive that their earnings are adequate for their needs.
Research Findings
In their longitudinal analysis, Roberts et al. (2003) found that negative emotionality scores from age 18 had a significant negative correlation with extrinsic success at age 26, including: -.27 occupational attainment (p < .01) and -.22 financial security (p < .01).
Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job / work experiences.
Definition
Job satisfaction refers to a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job / work experiences.
Research Findings
Judge et al. (2002) meta-analytic results documented an estimated true score correlation of -.29 between trait Neuroticism and job satisfaction; Thoresen et al. (2003) also conducted a meta-analysis and found a mean correlation of -.28 between Neuroticism and job satisfaction
The psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to an occupation.
Definition
The psychological and emotional attachment an individual feels to an occupation.
Research Findings
Thoresen et al. (2003) found a mean correlation of -.23 between Neuroticism and organizational commitment in their meta-analytic analysis.
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Definition
In the context of a pandemic health crisis, sheltering in place refers to the act of adhering to publich health guidelines to stay at a primary residence, avoiding travel and other public settings as much as possible.
Research Findings
In a study of over 100,000 participants, controlling for socioeconomic factors, G?tz et al. (2020), found neuroticism to be positively associated with sheltering in place during the COVID-19 pandemic (p < .001).
Vaccine hesitancy and resistance refers to a situation where someone is unsure of or against vaccination.
Definition
Vaccine hesitancy and resistance refers to a situation where someone is unsure of or against vaccination.
Research Findings
As part of a five-decade long birth cohort study, Moffitt et al. (2022) reported survey results gathered between April-July 2021 from 622 participants who responded to questions about their intentions to vaccinate against COVID-19. Among the many factors explored, one of the most significant differences found was that vaccine-hesitant participants were significantly more likely to score higher in neuroticism as adolescents than vaccine-willing participants were (p<.002).